Museum Timeline
A Journey Through Scientific History
Explore the discoveries, publications, careers, inventions and awards that shaped the lives of women across the museum collection.
Structured Historical Archive
212 milestones across 50 scientists
This chronology is generated from sourced scientist-event records rather than birth years alone. Each milestone links back to the scientist exhibit and, where available, to its provenance record.
Showing all 212 milestones.
Science opens its doors
1800s
1812
discovery
Earth & Palaeoscience
Excavates a largely complete ichthyosaur skeleton
After her brother Joseph found the skull, Anning excavated the rest of a large marine reptile skeleton near Lyme Regis; it became the first largely complete ichthyosaur to be scientifically studied.
1823
discovery
Earth & Palaeoscience
Discovers an articulated plesiosaur skeleton
Anning uncovered the first known articulated skeleton of a complete plesiosaur, transforming scientific understanding of this extinct marine-reptile group.
1828
discovery
Earth & Palaeoscience
Discovers a pterosaur outside Germany
Anning uncovered fossil remains later assigned to Dimorphodon, the first pterosaur discovered outside Germany.
1830
career
Earth & Palaeoscience
Her discoveries inspire the first reconstruction of prehistoric life
Henry De la Beche created Duria Antiquior from fossil evidence including Anning's discoveries and sold prints to help support her financially.
1833
career
Mathematics
Computer Science
Meets Charles Babbage
Lovelace met Charles Babbage and became deeply interested in his plans for calculating machines.
1843
publication
Mathematics
Computer Science
Publishes notes on the Analytical Engine
Her translation of Luigi Menabrea's paper appeared with extensive original notes on Babbage's proposed Analytical Engine.
1843
discovery
Mathematics
Computer Science
Describes a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers
One of Lovelace's notes set out a step-by-step method for the Analytical Engine to calculate Bernoulli numbers.
1854
career
Statistics & Data Science
Medicine & Health
Travels to Scutari during the Crimean War
Nightingale led a team of nurses to the military hospitals at Scutari, where she worked to improve care and hospital conditions.
1858
publication
Statistics & Data Science
Medicine & Health
Uses statistical graphics to argue for sanitary reform
Nightingale used mortality statistics and polar-area diagrams to communicate the preventable causes of soldiers' deaths.
1860
career
Statistics & Data Science
Medicine & Health
Establishes the Nightingale Training School
The Nightingale Training School for nurses opened at St Thomas' Hospital, helping professionalise nursing education.
1860
publication
Statistics & Data Science
Medicine & Health
Publishes Notes on Nursing
Nightingale's Notes on Nursing set out practical principles for nursing, health and the patient's environment.
1874
education
Mathematics
Receives her doctorate from Göttingen University
Kovalevskaya was awarded a doctorate summa cum laude after submitting major work on partial differential equations, Abelian integrals and Saturn's rings.
1884
career
Mathematics
Becomes extraordinary professor in Stockholm
After lecturing in Stockholm, Kovalevskaya was appointed extraordinary professor of higher analysis.
1888
award
Mathematics
Receives the Prix Bordin for work on rigid-body rotation
The French Academy of Sciences awarded Kovalevskaya the Prix Bordin for her work on the rotation of a solid body about a fixed point, now associated with the Kovalevskaya top.
1889
career
Mathematics
Receives a chair at Stockholm University
Kovalevskaya obtained a full chair in Stockholm, one of the earliest such appointments for a woman at a European university.
1891
education
Physics
Chemistry
Moves to Paris to study at the Sorbonne
Marie Skłodowska moved to Paris to continue her studies at the Sorbonne.
1893
career
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Begins work at Harvard College Observatory
Leavitt began working with photographic plates at Harvard College Observatory, studying and cataloguing variable stars.
1896
career
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Joins Harvard College Observatory
Cannon joined the Harvard College Observatory and began the stellar-classification work for which she became internationally known.
Modern breakthroughs
1900–1949
1901
discovery
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Refines the stellar classification sequence
Cannon developed the practical O-B-A-F-G-K-M spectral sequence, organising stars primarily by temperature and spectral characteristics.
1903
career
Biology & Life Sciences
Begins research at the Carnegie Institution's Station for Experimental Evolution
Stevens received support for experimental research on heredity and chromosome behaviour during the period in which she made her best-known discovery.
1903
award
Physics
Chemistry
Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics
Marie Curie shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel.
1905
discovery
Biology & Life Sciences
Shows that sex is associated with X and Y chromosomes
Studying mealworm chromosomes, Stevens demonstrated that males produced two kinds of sperm carrying different sex chromosomes, providing evidence for chromosomal sex determination.
1905
publication
Biology & Life Sciences
Publishes Studies in Spermatogenesis
Stevens published the chromosome observations that established her central role in the discovery of chromosomal sex determination.
1906
career
Physics
Chemistry
Becomes professor at the Sorbonne
After Pierre Curie's death, she succeeded him as Professor of General Physics, becoming the first woman to hold the position.
1907
education
Physics
Joins Max Planck's lectures in Berlin
After completing her doctorate in Vienna, Meitner moved to Berlin and attended Max Planck's lectures, beginning the next phase of her physics career.
1907
education
Mathematics
Physics
Receives her doctorate at Erlangen
Noether completed her doctorate in mathematics at the University of Erlangen.
1908
discovery
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Reports a pattern between Cepheid period and brightness
Leavitt reported that brighter Cepheid variables in the Small Magellanic Cloud had longer periods.
1911
career
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Becomes curator of astronomical photographs at Harvard
Cannon became curator of astronomical photographs at Harvard College Observatory while continuing large-scale stellar classification.
1911
award
Physics
Chemistry
Receives the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Curie received a second Nobel Prize, this time in Chemistry.
1912
publication
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Establishes the Cepheid period-luminosity relation
Her 1912 work quantified the relationship between Cepheid period and luminosity, creating a powerful basis for measuring astronomical distances.
1914
publication
Chemistry
Publishes chemistry research while at the University of Washington
Ball coauthored chemistry research before beginning graduate study in Hawaiʻi, becoming one of the first African American women published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society.
1914
career
Physics
Chemistry
Organises mobile X-ray services during World War I
During World War I, Curie organised mobile X-ray teams to support medical care.
1915
career
Mathematics
Physics
Moves to Göttingen to work on relativity and invariant theory
Felix Klein and David Hilbert brought Noether to Göttingen, where she worked on mathematical questions arising from general relativity.
1915
education
Chemistry
Earns a master's degree in chemistry from the College of Hawaiʻi
Ball became the first woman and first African American to earn a master's degree from what is now the University of Hawaiʻi.
1915
career
Chemistry
Becomes a chemistry instructor in Hawaiʻi
After graduating, Ball became the institution's first African American woman chemistry instructor.
1916
discovery
Chemistry
Develops the Ball Method for chaulmoogra oil
Ball isolated injectable active agents from chaulmoogra oil, creating the first successful treatment method used widely against Hansen's disease before sulfone drugs.
1917
discovery
Physics
Identifies the element protactinium with Otto Hahn
Meitner and Otto Hahn identified a long-lived isotope of the element later named protactinium.
1918
publication
Mathematics
Physics
Publishes the theorem linking symmetries and conservation laws
Noether's invariant-variation work established the profound connection now known as Noether's theorem.
1918
publication
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Publishes the first volume of the Henry Draper Catalogue
The Henry Draper Catalogue began publication with Cannon's classifications, ultimately cataloguing spectra for hundreds of thousands of stars.
1919
education
Biology & Life Sciences
Begins studying at Cornell University
McClintock entered Cornell's College of Agriculture in 1919, where she developed her enduring interest in genetics.
1919
education
Engineering
Earns an electrical engineering master's degree from MIT
Clarke became the first woman to earn a master's degree in electrical engineering from MIT.
1919
career
Mathematics
Physics
Habilitates at Göttingen
After legal barriers to women's habilitation were removed, Noether obtained her habilitation and could lecture under her own name.
1921
invention
Engineering
Receives a patent for the Clarke calculator
Clarke patented a graphical calculator that simplified calculations used to analyse long electrical transmission lines.
1922
career
Engineering
Becomes the first woman professional electrical engineer at General Electric
Clarke joined General Electric as a salaried electrical engineer, working on power-transmission analysis.
1923
career
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Moves to Harvard College Observatory
Payne left Britain for the United States to pursue astronomy at Harvard College Observatory.
1925
publication
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Completes her landmark thesis Stellar Atmospheres
Her doctoral thesis applied ionisation theory to stellar spectra and showed that hydrogen and helium are enormously abundant in stars.
1925
discovery
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Shows that stars are composed mainly of hydrogen and helium
Payne's analysis overturned the prevailing assumption that stars had broadly Earth-like elemental compositions.
1926
career
Engineering
Addresses the American Institute of Electrical Engineers
Clarke became the first woman to present a paper before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.
1930
education
Physics
Receives her doctorate from Göttingen
Goeppert Mayer completed her doctorate at the University of Göttingen before moving to the United States.
1930
career
Medicine & Health
Becomes head of the Harriet Lane cardiac clinic
Taussig became physician-in-charge of the children's cardiac clinic at Johns Hopkins, where she developed expertise in congenital heart disease.
1933
career
Mathematics
Physics
Moves to Bryn Mawr after dismissal from Göttingen
Dismissed from Göttingen by the Nazi government, Noether moved to the United States and joined Bryn Mawr College.
1934
career
Chemistry
Returns to Oxford to pursue crystallography
After doctoral work at Cambridge, Hodgkin returned to Oxford, where she remained for the rest of her scientific career.
1936
career
Biology & Life Sciences
Environmental Science
Joins the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries
Carson began federal service as an aquatic biologist, later rising to become editor-in-chief of Fish and Wildlife Service publications.
1937
career
Engineering
Environmental Science
Becomes a U.S. citizen and joins Westinghouse
Telkes worked at Westinghouse on converting heat into electrical energy, extending her research into practical energy technologies.
1938
career
Physics
Flees Nazi Germany for Sweden
Following the annexation of Austria and escalating persecution, Meitner escaped Germany and continued her work in Sweden.
1939
discovery
Physics
Explains nuclear fission with Otto Frisch
Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch provided the physical interpretation of uranium fission and explained the enormous energy release.
1940
career
Engineering
Environmental Science
Joins MIT's Solar Energy Conversion Project
Telkes joined the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's solar-energy programme and focused increasingly on thermal storage and solar applications.
1941
publication
Biology & Life Sciences
Environmental Science
Publishes Under the Sea-Wind
Carson's first book combined marine biology with vivid nature writing.
1942
invention
Engineering
Receives a patent for frequency-hopping communication
Lamarr and composer George Antheil received U.S. Patent 2,292,387 for a frequency-hopping communication system designed to reduce detection and jamming of radio-controlled torpedoes.
1943
career
Computer Science
Joins the wartime computing programme at the Moore School
Goldstine worked at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering, training women who calculated firing tables for the U.S. Army.
1944
career
Computer Science
Works on the Harvard Mark I
As a US Navy Reserve officer, Hopper worked with Howard Aiken's Harvard computation group on the Mark I.
1944
career
Physics
Joins Columbia and contributes to the Manhattan Project
Wu joined Columbia University in 1944 and contributed to wartime research connected with the Manhattan Project.
1944
career
Chemistry
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Joins Burroughs Wellcome
Elion joined George Hitchings's laboratory at Burroughs Wellcome and began the long programme of rational drug research that defined her career.
1944
discovery
Medicine & Health
Helps develop the Blalock-Taussig shunt
Taussig's clinical insight into cyanotic heart disease helped lead Alfred Blalock and Vivien Thomas to develop a surgical shunt that increased blood flow to the lungs.
1945
publication
Medicine & Health
Reports the surgical treatment for blue baby syndrome
The results of the new operation for congenital pulmonary stenosis and atresia were published, helping establish modern paediatric cardiac surgery.
1946
career
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Joins Viktor Hamburger's laboratory at Washington University
Levi-Montalcini was invited to Washington University in St. Louis, where she continued research on nervous-system development.
1946
career
Chemistry
Engineering
Joins DuPont as a chemist
After graduating in chemistry from Carnegie Institute of Technology, Kwolek joined DuPont's Textile Fibers Department.
1946
discovery
Chemistry
Determines the structure of penicillin
Hodgkin's X-ray crystallography work successfully established the structure of penicillin after an intensive wartime research effort.
1946
publication
Computer Science
Writes the ENIAC technical manual
Goldstine prepared the detailed technical description and operating documentation for ENIAC, preserving essential knowledge of how the pioneering electronic computer worked.
1947
career
Physics
Medicine & Health
Begins research at the Bronx Veterans Administration Hospital
Yalow began the long research career at the Bronx VA Medical Center where she would collaborate with physician Solomon Berson.
1947
invention
Engineering
Environmental Science
Develops a solar-powered distillation system
Telkes developed a portable solar still for producing fresh water from seawater, work associated with wartime and postwar survival technology.
1947
discovery
Computer Science
Works on stored-program development for ENIAC
Goldstine collaborated with John von Neumann and others on changes that enabled ENIAC to use a stored-program style of operation.
1947
career
Engineering
Joins the University of Texas engineering faculty
Clarke became the first woman to teach engineering at the University of Texas, where she taught electrical engineering.
1948
education
Mathematics
Receives her doctorate and begins work on Hilbert's Tenth Problem
Robinson completed her doctorate at Berkeley and immediately began research on Hilbert's Tenth Problem.
1948
discovery
Biology & Life Sciences
Describes mobile controlling elements in maize
McClintock reported that genetic elements in maize could change position within chromosomes, establishing the concept of transposition.
1948
invention
Engineering
Environmental Science
Helps create the Dover Sun House
Working with architect Eleanor Raymond, Telkes designed the solar heating and chemical heat-storage system for the Dover Sun House in Massachusetts.
1949
education
Mathematics
Physics
Defends her doctoral dissertation
Ladyzhenskaya defended work on finite-difference methods for linear and quasilinear hyperbolic systems of partial differential equations.
1949
career
Computer Science
Joins Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation
Hopper joined the company founded by the designers of ENIAC and continued pioneering work in programming.
1949
discovery
Physics
Develops the nuclear shell model
Goeppert Mayer developed a model in which protons and neutrons occupy nuclear shells with distinct energy levels.
1949
publication
Physics
Publishes the spin-orbit explanation of nuclear magic numbers
Her 1949 work explained the observed nuclear magic numbers through strong spin-orbit coupling.
New technologies
1950–1999
1950
discovery
Chemistry
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Develops purine analogues for drug therapy
Elion and colleagues developed compounds that interfered selectively with purine metabolism, opening routes to new treatments for leukaemia and other diseases.
1950
publication
Biology & Life Sciences
Publishes evidence for Ac and Ds transposition
McClintock published experimental evidence showing that the Ac and Ds controlling elements could transpose and alter gene activity.
1951
career
Chemistry
Biology & Life Sciences
Begins DNA research at King's College London
Franklin worked at King's College London using X-ray diffraction to investigate DNA.
1951
publication
Mathematics
Publishes an iterative method for solving games
Robinson published an important convergence result for finite two-person zero-sum games.
1951
publication
Biology & Life Sciences
Environmental Science
Publishes The Sea Around Us
The Sea Around Us became an international bestseller and established Carson as a major science writer.
1952
discovery
Chemistry
Biology & Life Sciences
Produces Photo 51 with Raymond Gosling
Franklin and Raymond Gosling produced the celebrated X-ray diffraction image known as Photo 51 in May 1952.
1952
discovery
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Identifies a tumour-derived nerve-growth effect
Her experiments showed that mouse tumours released a substance that stimulated vigorous nerve growth in chick embryos.
1952
discovery
Computer Science
Develops an early compiler
At Eckert-Mauchly, Hopper developed one of the world's first compilers, helping establish compiler-based programming.
1952
career
Biology & Life Sciences
Environmental Science
Leaves government service to write full time
The success of The Sea Around Us allowed Carson to resign from the Fish and Wildlife Service and concentrate on writing.
1953
career
Mathematics
Engineering
Joins NACA at Langley
Johnson began work at Langley in the West Area Computing section of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.
1953
publication
Mathematics
Physics
Publishes Mixed Problems for a Hyperbolic Equation
Her first book used finite-difference methods to establish solvability results for initial boundary-value problems involving hyperbolic equations.
1953
publication
Chemistry
Biology & Life Sciences
DNA research appears alongside the double-helix model
A paper by Franklin and Gosling appeared in Nature alongside papers announcing the DNA structural model.
1953
career
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Begins collaboration with Stanley Cohen
Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen began the collaboration that led to the identification and isolation of nerve growth factor.
1953
career
Chemistry
Biology & Life Sciences
Moves to Birkbeck College
Franklin left King's College London for Birkbeck, where she developed important research on virus structure.
1953
invention
Engineering
Environmental Science
Develops a solar oven
Telkes developed a practical solar oven intended to cook food using concentrated sunlight without conventional fuel.
1955
career
Computer Science
Joins IBM
Haibt joined IBM after graduating from Vassar College and became part of the team developing the FORTRAN programming language.
1956
discovery
Physics
Performs the experiment that tests parity conservation
Wu designed and carried out the landmark beta-decay experiment that demonstrated parity is not conserved in weak interactions.
1956
discovery
Chemistry
Determines the structure of vitamin B12
Hodgkin and her collaborators resolved the exceptionally complex molecular structure of vitamin B12.
1956
career
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Becomes Harvard's first woman full professor in astronomy
Payne-Gaposchkin became a full professor at Harvard and chaired the astronomy department.
1957
career
Computer Science
Joins IBM and begins work with FORTRAN
Allen joined IBM as a programmer and her first assignment was teaching FORTRAN, beginning a career focused on compiler technology.
1957
discovery
Computer Science
Contributes to the first FORTRAN compiler
As a member of John Backus's team, Haibt developed methods for analysing arithmetic expressions and generating efficient machine instructions for the first FORTRAN compiler.
1957
discovery
Chemistry
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Work contributes to the immunosuppressant azathioprine
The purine-analogue research programme led to azathioprine, which became important in organ transplantation and autoimmune disease.
1957
publication
Computer Science
FORTRAN is released for the IBM 704
The first FORTRAN system was delivered for the IBM 704, helping make high-level programming practical for scientific and engineering computing.
1958
career
Computer Science
Begins work with the Dartmouth computer laboratory
Keller participated in early computing work at Dartmouth during a period when access to computer laboratories was often restricted for women.
1958
career
Physics
Becomes a full professor at Columbia
Wu became a full professor at Columbia University and was elected to the National Academy of Sciences the same year.
1959
career
Computer Science
Helps develop the COBOL programming language
Sammet served on the CODASYL committee that designed COBOL, contributing to one of the most influential business programming languages.
1959
discovery
Physics
Medicine & Health
Develops radioimmunoassay with Solomon Berson
Yalow and Berson developed radioimmunoassay, an exceptionally sensitive method for measuring tiny concentrations of hormones and other substances in blood.
1959
discovery
Computer Science
Helps shape the development of COBOL
Hopper played an important role in the development of the business-oriented programming language that became COBOL.
1960
career
Biology & Life Sciences
Anthropology & Behavioural Science
Begins chimpanzee research at Gombe
Goodall arrived at Gombe in Tanzania and began the long-running study of wild chimpanzee communities.
1960
publication
Mathematics
Engineering
Coauthors orbital-flight research report
Johnson and Ted Skopinski published a report describing equations for orbital spaceflight.
1960
discovery
Biology & Life Sciences
Anthropology & Behavioural Science
Observes chimpanzees making and using tools
Goodall observed chimpanzees modifying and using plant stems to extract termites, challenging assumptions about tool use.
1960
career
Physics
Becomes a professor at the University of California, San Diego
Goeppert Mayer accepted a full professorship at the newly established University of California, San Diego.
1961
career
Computer Science
Joins IBM
Sammet joined IBM and became a leading specialist in programming languages.
1961
discovery
Mathematics
Engineering
Calculates trajectory for Freedom 7
Johnson performed trajectory analysis for Alan Shepard's Freedom 7 mission, the first American human spaceflight.
1961
career
Mathematics
Physics
Becomes head of the Laboratory of Mathematical Physics
Ladyzhenskaya began three decades as head of the Laboratory of Mathematical Physics at the Steklov Mathematical Institute.
1962
discovery
Computer Science
Leads development of the FORMAC language
At IBM, Sammet led the development of FORMAC, an early widely used programming language for symbolic mathematical manipulation.
1962
discovery
Mathematics
Engineering
Verifies calculations for John Glenn's orbital flight
John Glenn asked Johnson to personally recheck the electronic computer calculations for Friendship 7.
1962
publication
Biology & Life Sciences
Environmental Science
Publishes Silent Spring
Silent Spring documented the ecological dangers of indiscriminate pesticide use and helped galvanise the modern environmental movement.
1963
publication
Biology & Life Sciences
Anthropology & Behavioural Science
National Geographic publishes her first major cover story
The National Geographic story 'My Life Among the Wild Chimpanzees' brought her research to a global audience.
1963
award
Physics
Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics
Goeppert Mayer shared the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physics for discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure.
1964
education
Computer Science
Completes her PhD at Cambridge
Spärck Jones completed doctoral work at Cambridge on synonymy and semantic classification, beginning a career connecting language and computation.
1964
award
Chemistry
Receives the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Hodgkin received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the structures of important biochemical substances using X-ray techniques.
1965
career
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Joins the Carnegie Institution's Department of Terrestrial Magnetism
Rubin joined Carnegie's Department of Terrestrial Magnetism as its first woman staff scientist.
1965
career
Computer Science
Engineering
Joins IBM Research
Conway joined IBM Research and worked on advanced computer architecture, including the ACS supercomputer project.
1965
discovery
Chemistry
Engineering
Discovers the liquid-crystalline polymer system that leads to Kevlar
Kwolek discovered unusual liquid-crystalline polymer solutions that could be spun into fibres of extraordinary strength and stiffness.
1965
education
Computer Science
Receives a PhD in computer science
Keller earned a doctorate at the University of Wisconsin, becoming one of the first people—and the first woman in the United States—to receive a PhD in computer science.
1965
career
Computer Science
Founds the computer science department at Clarke College
Keller established the computer science department at Clarke College and led it for many years.
1965
career
Medicine & Health
Becomes the first woman president of the American Heart Association
Taussig became the first woman to serve as president of the American Heart Association.
1966
publication
Computer Science
Publishes a seminal framework for program optimization
Allen published work that established influential techniques for analysing and transforming programs to improve their execution.
1966
invention
Chemistry
Engineering
Patents the high-strength fibre technology
Kwolek's polymer research led to patented fibre technology that DuPont later commercialised as Kevlar.
1966
education
Biology & Life Sciences
Anthropology & Behavioural Science
Receives a PhD in ethology from Cambridge
Goodall received her doctorate in ethology from the University of Cambridge.
1968
education
Computer Science
Earns a PhD in computer science from Stanford
Liskov became the first woman in the United States to receive a PhD from a computer science department.
1969
career
Chemistry
Medicine & Health
Joins Project 523 malaria research
Tu Youyou was appointed to lead work searching traditional Chinese medical knowledge for new antimalarial treatments.
1969
award
Mathematics
Physics
Receives major Soviet mathematics prizes
Ladyzhenskaya received both the Chebyshev Prize of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR State Prize.
1969
publication
Computer Science
Publishes Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals
Sammet published a major reference work documenting the history, design and characteristics of programming languages.
1969
discovery
Mathematics
Engineering
Contributes to Apollo 11 trajectory work
Johnson's technical contributions included calculations connected with the Apollo 11 mission to the Moon.
1970
publication
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Publishes the Andromeda Galaxy rotation study with Kent Ford
Rubin and Kent Ford published precise measurements of Andromeda's rotation, revealing unexpectedly high orbital speeds far from its centre.
1970
discovery
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Finds evidence for flat galactic rotation curves
The Andromeda observations showed that outer material was rotating much faster than visible matter alone could explain.
1970
discovery
Computer Science
Develops foundational ideas in data abstraction and CLU
During the 1970s, Liskov's work on data abstraction and the CLU programming language demonstrated systematic ways to construct and maintain complex software.
1970
discovery
Mathematics
Contributes to the solution of Hilbert's Tenth Problem
The work of Robinson, Martin Davis and Hilary Putnam formed a crucial part of the chain of results completed by Yuri Matiyasevich in 1970, proving that no general algorithm exists for Hilbert's Tenth Problem.
1971
discovery
Chemistry
Medicine & Health
Develops a low-temperature Artemisia extraction method
Inspired by an ancient preparation method, Tu developed a low-temperature ether extraction that produced consistently potent antimalarial activity.
1972
career
Computer Science
Joins the MIT faculty
Liskov joined MIT, where she developed foundational ideas in programming languages and software methodology.
1972
discovery
Computer Science
Introduces inverse document frequency
Spärck Jones published the statistical interpretation of term specificity that became known as inverse document frequency, or IDF, a foundational idea in information retrieval.
1972
discovery
Chemistry
Medicine & Health
Isolates the active antimalarial compound artemisinin
Tu's research group isolated the active substance from Artemisia annua that became known as artemisinin.
1973
career
Computer Science
Engineering
Joins Xerox PARC
Conway joined Xerox PARC, where her work helped transform the methods used to design complex integrated circuits.
1973
career
Physics
Becomes the first woman to lead the American Physical Society
Wu became the first woman to serve as president of the American Physical Society.
1974
career
Computer Science
Becomes the first woman president of ACM
Sammet became the first woman to serve as president of the Association for Computing Machinery.
1975
award
Physics
Receives the National Medal of Science
Wu received the United States National Medal of Science for her contributions to physics.
1976
award
Mathematics
Is elected to the National Academy of Sciences
Robinson became the first woman mathematician elected to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences.
1977
award
Physics
Medicine & Health
Receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Yalow shared the 1977 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones.
1977
career
Biology & Life Sciences
Anthropology & Behavioural Science
Founds the Jane Goodall Institute
Goodall established the Jane Goodall Institute to support research, conservation and community-led action.
1978
award
Physics
Receives the first Wolf Prize in Physics
Wu received the inaugural Wolf Prize in Physics.
1979
invention
Computer Science
Engineering
Designs the Acorn System 1 microcomputer
Wilson designed an early 8-bit microcomputer that Acorn Computers produced commercially beginning in 1979.
1979
publication
Computer Science
Engineering
Publishes Introduction to VLSI Systems with Carver Mead
Conway and Carver Mead's textbook presented a new, scalable methodology for very-large-scale integrated circuit design and became central to the Mead-Conway VLSI revolution.
1980
discovery
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Builds a compelling observational case for non-luminous matter
By 1980, measurements across many spiral galaxies had established a strong observational case for large amounts of unseen matter.
1980
discovery
Computer Science
Develops Argus for distributed programming
During the 1980s, Liskov and her group developed Argus, a high-level language designed to support distributed programs.
1980
discovery
Computer Science
Engineering
Demonstrates a new system for university VLSI chip design
Conway's multi-university VLSI design course and fabrication system showed that students could design complex chips and have them fabricated through a shared infrastructure.
1981
invention
Computer Science
Engineering
Designs the BBC Micro with Steve Furber
Wilson and Steve Furber rapidly developed the prototype that became the BBC Micro; Wilson also designed its operating system and wrote BBC BASIC.
1982
career
Mathematics
Becomes the first woman president of the American Mathematical Society
Robinson became the first woman to serve as president of the American Mathematical Society.
1983
award
Biology & Life Sciences
Receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
McClintock received the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her discovery of mobile genetic elements.
1985
invention
Computer Science
Engineering
Invents the Spanning Tree Protocol
While working at Digital Equipment Corporation, Perlman designed the Spanning Tree Protocol, enabling Ethernet networks to prevent bridging loops while retaining redundant paths.
1985
discovery
Physics
Develops chirped pulse amplification with Gérard Mourou
As a graduate student, Strickland and Gérard Mourou developed chirped pulse amplification, a method for producing ultrashort optical pulses of extremely high intensity.
1985
career
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Moves to the United States to continue mRNA research
Karikó moved from Hungary to the United States and joined Temple University, continuing her work on messenger RNA.
1985
publication
Computer Science
Engineering
Publishes the Spanning Tree algorithm
Perlman's work on distributed computation for network bridges provided the algorithmic basis for robust large-scale bridged Ethernet networks.
1985
publication
Physics
Publishes the first chirped pulse amplification paper
Strickland and Mourou published their method for amplifying chirped optical pulses, establishing the basis of modern high-intensity laser systems.
1985
invention
Computer Science
Engineering
Co-designs the ARM processor architecture
Wilson and Furber co-designed the 32-bit RISC Machine processor that became the foundation of the ARM architecture.
1986
publication
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Publishes early evidence for the large-scale structure of the universe
Geller and collaborators used galaxy redshift surveys to reveal that galaxies are distributed in large coherent structures rather than uniformly through space.
1986
award
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Levi-Montalcini shared the Nobel Prize with Stanley Cohen for their discoveries of growth factors.
1986
career
Chemistry
Engineering
Retires from DuPont
Kwolek retired as a research associate after four decades at DuPont, while continuing to consult and support scientific organisations.
1986
career
Computer Science
Retires from the US Navy
Hopper retired from active naval service with the rank of Rear Admiral.
1986
career
Mathematics
Engineering
Retires from Langley
Johnson retired after 33 years at Langley.
1988
publication
Mathematics
Publishes compactly supported orthonormal wavelets
Daubechies published a construction of orthonormal bases of compactly supported wavelets with arbitrarily high regularity, a foundational result in modern wavelet theory.
1988
award
Chemistry
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Elion shared the 1988 Nobel Prize with George Hitchings and James Black for important principles of drug treatment.
1988
award
Physics
Medicine & Health
Receives the National Medal of Science
Yalow received the United States National Medal of Science for her contributions to medical physics and biomedical research.
1989
discovery
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Maps the Great Wall of galaxies
Work by Geller and John Huchra on the CfA redshift survey revealed the Great Wall, then one of the largest known structures in the universe.
1989
career
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Joins the University of Pennsylvania
Karikó joined the University of Pennsylvania, where she pursued the therapeutic potential of messenger RNA despite limited support for the approach.
1989
award
Computer Science
Becomes the first woman named an IBM Fellow
IBM named Allen an IBM Fellow, the company's highest technical distinction, making her the first woman to receive the title.
1989
education
Physics
Receives her PhD from the University of Rochester
Strickland completed her doctorate in optics at the University of Rochester.
1990
award
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Receives a MacArthur Fellowship
Geller received a MacArthur Fellowship for her influential work in observational cosmology and large-scale structure.
1991
discovery
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Identifies a large family of odorant receptor genes
Buck and Richard Axel reported a large multigene family encoding odorant receptors, providing a molecular basis for understanding how the sense of smell begins.
1991
publication
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Publishes the landmark odorant receptor paper
Buck and Axel published their receptor-gene discovery in Cell, establishing a new framework for studying olfaction.
1994
career
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Begins high-resolution observations of the Galactic Center
Ghez and her team began using high-resolution infrared techniques at the Keck Observatory to track stars near the centre of the Milky Way.
1994
career
Mathematics
Becomes a professor at Princeton University
Daubechies joined Princeton's mathematics faculty, later becoming the first woman to hold a full professorship in mathematics there.
1994
career
Computer Science
Becomes Professor of Computers and Information at Cambridge
Spärck Jones became Professor of Computers and Information at the University of Cambridge.
1994
award
Mathematics
Receives the Steele Prize for Mathematical Exposition
Her book Ten Lectures on Wavelets received the American Mathematical Society's Steele Prize for Mathematical Exposition.
1995
education
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Receives her PhD in neurophysiology
Moser completed her doctorate at the University of Oslo after research on the neural basis of learning and memory.
1995
award
Chemistry
Engineering
Is inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame
Kwolek was inducted for the breakthrough polymer research that led to Kevlar fibre.
1996
career
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Begins postdoctoral work with John O'Keefe
May-Britt and Edvard Moser trained with John O'Keefe at University College London before establishing their own research programme in Norway.
1997
award
Engineering
Receives recognition from the Electronic Frontier Foundation
Lamarr and Antheil's frequency-hopping work was recognised by the Electronic Frontier Foundation as an important contribution to communications technology.
1997
career
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Begins collaboration with Drew Weissman
Karikó began working with immunologist Drew Weissman on overcoming inflammatory responses triggered by synthetic mRNA.
1997
career
Physics
Joins the University of Waterloo faculty
Strickland joined the University of Waterloo, where she built a research programme in ultrafast laser science.
1998
discovery
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Reports evidence for a supermassive compact object at the Galactic Center
Measurements of rapidly moving stars provided compelling dynamical evidence for a massive compact object at the centre of the Milky Way.
Contemporary science
2000s+
2000
discovery
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Uses adaptive optics to sharpen Galactic Center observations
Ghez's group helped pioneer adaptive-optics observations that made increasingly precise measurements of stellar orbits around the Galactic Center possible.
2002
career
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Joins the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center
Buck moved to the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, where she continued research on neural mechanisms underlying sensory perception and behaviour.
2003
award
Mathematics
Physics
Receives the Golden Lomonosov Medal
Ladyzhenskaya received the Russian Academy of Sciences' Golden Lomonosov Medal near the end of her distinguished career.
2004
award
Computer Science
Receives the ACL Lifetime Achievement Award
The Association for Computational Linguistics honoured Spärck Jones for her major contributions to computational linguistics and information retrieval.
2004
award
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Buck shared the Nobel Prize with Richard Axel for discoveries of odorant receptors and the organisation of the olfactory system.
2005
discovery
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Discovers grid cells in the entorhinal cortex
Moser and colleagues identified grid cells, neurons whose firing patterns form a coordinate system used by the brain for spatial navigation.
2005
discovery
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Publishes the nucleoside-modification breakthrough
Karikó and Weissman showed that replacing uridine with modified nucleosides could suppress unwanted immune activation caused by in-vitro-transcribed mRNA.
2006
award
Computer Science
Receives the A.M. Turing Award
Allen became the first woman to receive the ACM A.M. Turing Award, recognised for pioneering contributions to compiler optimisation and high-performance computing.
2008
award
Computer Science
Receives the A.M. Turing Award
Liskov received the 2008 Turing Award for foundational contributions to programming language and system design, including data abstraction, fault tolerance and distributed computing.
2011
career
Mathematics
Joins Duke University
Daubechies moved to Duke University as James B. Duke Professor of Mathematics.
2012
award
Computer Science
Engineering
Named a Computer History Museum Fellow
The Computer History Museum recognised Wilson for her work on the BBC Micro and ARM processor architecture.
2014
award
Engineering
Inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame
Lamarr was inducted posthumously for the frequency-hopping communication system she co-invented with George Antheil.
2014
award
Computer Science
Engineering
Inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame
The Internet Society inducted Perlman for pioneering contributions to network routing and bridging technology.
2014
award
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Moser shared the Nobel Prize with Edvard Moser and John O'Keefe for discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain.
2015
award
Chemistry
Medicine & Health
Receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Tu shared the 2015 Nobel Prize for discoveries concerning a novel therapy against malaria.
2016
award
Computer Science
Engineering
Inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame
Perlman was inducted for innovations in network routing and bridging, including the Spanning Tree Protocol.
2018
award
Physics
Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics
Strickland shared half of the Nobel Prize with Gérard Mourou for their method of generating high-intensity, ultra-short optical pulses.
2020
award
Astronomy & Astrophysics
Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics
Ghez shared half of the Nobel Prize with Reinhard Genzel for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy.
2023
award
Biology & Life Sciences
Medicine & Health
Receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Karikó shared the Nobel Prize with Drew Weissman for discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19.
2023
award
Computer Science
Engineering
Is inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame
Conway was inducted for contributions to VLSI technology and methods that transformed modern microchip design.
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